Claire Thompson
The way chickens are raised and processed has changed significantly over the years, with improved production and processing technologies, and a continuing responsiveness to consumer demands. Chickens have evolved from being backyard flocks of dual-purpose chickens supplying eggs and meat for household consumption to becoming a commercial industry. The development of the broiler chicken, raised specifically for its meat, has led to an economic boom in the industry. However, the intensive production methods and genetic selection for economically efficient birds have also raised concerns about animal welfare, disease, and food safety. The processing of chickens has also evolved, with the implementation of quality control programs and advancements in technology to enhance product wholesomeness and quality.
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What You'll Learn
The shift from backyard flocks to commercial broiler production
Wilmer Steele of Sussex County, Delaware, is often credited as the pioneer of the commercial broiler industry. In 1923, she raised 500 chicks for meat and turned a substantial profit. By 1926, she had expanded her operation to accommodate 10,000 birds. This marked the beginning of the shift towards commercial broiler production.
The early broiler industry consisted of separate entities, including feed mills, hatcheries, farms, and processors. However, entrepreneurs soon began consolidating these operations, leading to the integration of the industry. The development of year-round production and the discovery of vitamin D also played a role in the shift. By 1942, an Illinois plant achieved government approval for "on-line" evisceration, setting a new standard for processing.
The commercial broiler industry experienced an economic boom, and by 1952, specially bred meat chickens ("broilers") became the primary source of chicken meat in the United States. The focus on genetic selection to produce larger birds with shorter growth periods and reduced feed requirements has had a significant impact on the industry. However, this has also led to concerns about animal welfare and the prevalence of health issues in broiler chickens.
Today, the broiler industry continues to evolve, employing advanced scientific technologies to enhance quality and meet consumer demands. The processing of chickens has become more efficient, with stunning, slaughtering, and processing practices in place. While there are debates about the most humane methods of culling, the industry strives to balance efficiency and animal welfare.
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Industry advancements and improved processing technologies
One notable improvement is the development of more efficient structural organisation and production processes. The integration of feed mills, hatcheries, and processing operations led to the emergence of an integrated industry, reducing costs and streamlining chicken production. Additionally, the discovery of vitamin D and the understanding of the photoperiod's impact on production enabled year-round chicken meat production.
Processing technologies have also undergone significant advancements. In 1942, an Illinois plant introduced "on-line" evisceration, which later became the norm, ensuring chickens were eviscerated and packed as ready-to-cook whole carcasses. The implementation of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) process control system by the USDA in 1998 further improved quality control. This modern approach aims to identify and control points in the processing where chemical, physical, and microbiological hazards can be managed, emphasising pathogen reduction.
Genetic selection has been utilised to produce chickens that meet market demands for meatier birds at a faster rate. While this has resulted in more affordable and wholesome chicken meat, it has also raised concerns about animal welfare and health issues. Intensive production methods have led to serious health problems, including leg issues, brittle bones, respiratory illnesses, and bacterial infections.
To address some of these challenges, processing technologies continue to evolve. For example, neck skin removal during processing helps reduce bacteria loads, improving food safety. Additionally, advancements in feather removal machines, such as the "picker," enhance efficiency during processing.
The industry remains committed to utilising the most advanced scientific technologies and exploring new methods to enhance quality and wholesomeness for consumers while also responding to their expectations regarding animal welfare and food safety.
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Consolidation of feed mills, hatcheries and processors
The commercial broiler industry has evolved significantly over the years, with feed mills, hatcheries, farms, and processors initially operating as separate entities. However, the consolidation of these entities marked a pivotal point in the industry's transformation.
Entrepreneurs played a pivotal role in consolidating feed mills, hatcheries, and processing operations, leading to the emergence of an integrated industry. This integration brought about a more efficient structural organization and improved production technologies, contributing to the industry's success.
Initially, farmers would sell their market-ready flocks to processors and repay the feed mills. However, the consolidation of feed mills, hatcheries, and processors resulted in a more streamlined and vertically integrated model. This integration allowed for better coordination and optimization of the entire chicken production process, from hatching to processing.
The consolidation offered economies of scale and centralized control, enabling more efficient production and processing methods. It also facilitated the implementation of new technologies and innovations, such as the development of broilers – chickens specifically raised for their meat. This shift from backyard flocks to large-scale commercial broiler operations revolutionized the industry.
The consolidated entities could also exert more influence on production, processing, and marketing strategies. This allowed them to respond more effectively to consumer demands and market trends, further driving the industry's growth and transformation.
While the consolidation of feed mills, hatcheries, and processors brought about significant changes and efficiencies in the chicken industry, it also led to concerns about animal welfare and food safety. The intensive production methods and crowded conditions in which chickens are often raised have raised welfare concerns, with birds suffering from various health issues due to confinement, filth, and disease.
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Intensive production and genetic selection
Over time, the industry has intensified production methods, aiming to increase efficiency and meet consumer demands. This has resulted in chickens being confined to large, windowless sheds that hold tens of thousands of birds. Such intensive confinement has led to concerns about filth and disease, with chickens suffering from respiratory illnesses, bacterial infections, and other health issues due to poor air quality and stressful conditions.
Genetic selection has played a significant role in intensifying chicken production. Birds have been selectively bred to produce more meat in a shorter amount of time. In the 1950s, it took 63 days on average for a chicken to reach slaughter weight. By the 1990s, this period had reduced to 38 days, and the amount of feed required was halved. While these practices have made chicken more affordable and accessible, they have also raised concerns about animal welfare and the impact on bird health.
The intensive production system has led to various health problems in chickens. Their bones, hearts, and lungs struggle to keep up with the rapid growth, resulting in leg issues, lameness, and even deaths from heart attacks or swollen hearts. Additionally, the high-density living conditions contribute to stress and aggression among the birds, leading to injuries and fatalities from pecking.
To address these challenges, farmers have resorted to practices like beak clipping and debeaking to prevent pecking, although these procedures have been criticised for causing pain and distress to the birds. The industry continues to face scrutiny and pressure to improve animal welfare standards while maintaining efficiency and affordability.
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Animal welfare and food safety concerns
Animal welfare concerns have been raised regarding the intensive production methods used in the broiler chicken industry. Chickens are typically confined to large, windowless sheds, with tens of thousands of birds in each shed, leading to frustration and aggressive pecking behaviour. Beak clipping and debeaking are common practices to prevent pecking, but these procedures are painful for the birds and can affect their ability to eat, leading to starvation in some cases. The high-intensity production methods also affect the birds' bones, causing them to become brittle and easily broken. Additionally, the filthy conditions in the sheds, with dust, feathers, and ammonia in the air, contribute to respiratory illnesses and bacterial infections in the chickens.
Genetic selection to produce larger birds in a shorter amount of time has also led to serious health problems for broiler chickens. Their bones, hearts, and lungs struggle to keep up with their rapid growth, resulting in leg problems, skin diseases, and even death from heart attacks or swollen hearts. The high density of birds in confined spaces further contributes to the spread of diseases such as salmonella and campylobacter, which are commonly found in chicken meat.
To address these concerns, the USDA implemented the HAACP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) process control system program in 1998, aiming to identify and control points in the processing where chemical, physical, and microbiological hazards can be managed. Processors have also started removing the neck skin of chickens, which is often highly contaminated, to reduce the bacterial load. However, this has made it challenging for government watchdogs like the Food Standards Agency (FSA) to collect samples for bacteria tests and monitor retailers' food safety practices.
The debate around humane methods of slaughtering chickens also falls under animal welfare concerns. While there is no FDA or USDA-approved "humane" way to kill a chicken in a slaughterhouse setting, stunning and slaughtering methods aim to minimise trauma and pain for the animals.
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Frequently asked questions
Early poultry production consisted of households with backyard flocks of dual-purpose chickens. In 1923, Wilmer Steele of Delaware raised 500 chicks intended to be sold for meat, pioneering the commercial broiler industry. By 1942, an Illinois plant won government approval for "on-line" evisceration, which became the norm. In 1949, the USDA launched a voluntary grading program to assure consumers of quality. By 1952, specially bred meat chickens surpassed farm chickens as the primary source of chicken meat in the US.
Chickens raised for meat are typically confined to massive, windowless sheds with tens of thousands of other birds. This intensive confinement leads to filth, disease, and behavioural issues. Chickens are bred to produce more meat faster, resulting in health issues like lameness and heart problems.
Processing plants stun, slaughter, and process chickens. After slaughter, feathers are removed by a machine called a "picker". The eviscerating line removes internal organs and feet. Carcasses are cleaned, inspected, and rinsed to reduce bacteria. The neck skin, the most contaminated part, is often removed to extend shelf life.
